Now that you know the cultural significance behind headrests, we can discuss the location from which NYU says it’s from, Bamana, Mali.

When it comes to discussing identity, I think back to Jean-Paul Colleyn and Laurie Ann Farrell’s (from Bamana: the art of existence in Mali) question, “Who is classifying whom?” This made me want to do a deeper dive into Bamana culture and people.

Mali, a landlocked country in West Africa, is situated between Algeria to the north, Niger to the east, Burkina Faso and Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) to the south, Guinea to the southwest, and Senegal and Mauritania to the west. Mali is home to the Bamana (Bambara), the largest Mande ethnic group in Mali, making up around 33.3% of the total population. Bamana (meaning “rejection of a master” or “those who refused to be dominated”). The Mandinka and Bambara people are closely related West African ethnic groups within the broader Mandé ethno-linguistic family, sharing a common history, culture, and descent from the Mali Empire. The Bambara emerged as a subgroup of the Mandinka. The Mandinka people are an ancient West African ethnic group, with roots stretching back to at least the 3rd century BC in the Mande region, and a major presence since the rise of the Mali Empire in the 13th century.

Even though the official language of Mali is French, 80% of people speak Bambara (Mande language). Most of the Bamanans are Muslims, but many people still follow their traditional and spiritual beliefs in honoring their ancestors.

According to Dr. Teferi Abate Adem, Bamana (often called Bambara by French colonizers) villages are usually made up of extended families within the father’s lineages, each identified by a totem called a jamu (often animals like lions or panthers). Some villages also include groups like the Fulani if given permission by the village chief. Community life centers around spirituality, and each village has a sacred woodlot or a dwelling place used for rituals and initiations. Spiritual beliefs shape daily life, like birthmarks, timing of birth, and natural signs, which are seen as meaningful. Especially in relation to societies that include the symbolic death and rebirth, like Kore (Kore was a society for uncircumcised boys). Children are examined at birth for physical abnormalities, which could be signs of artistic capacity, excellent memory, or psychic abilities. For instance, a child born with a birthmark similar to that of their grandfather, who was a famous sculptor, could be a sign that that child will be a great sculptor too.

Religion is deeply tied to ancestors, who are honored through ceremonies and believed to guide the living, and village chiefs act as the medium between the living and the dead. People join initiation societies called dyo or jow to gain spiritual power, while other religious practitioners like marabouts (Quranic scholars) and caste groups (nyamakala) possess magic, poison, and procedures for combating enemies and sorcerers, etc. Each dyo is organized hierarchically, and each level has a different degree of spiritual power. During each community-wide festival, ancestors are remembered and honored with prayers and sacrifices. This is done through rhythmic performances and chants, which symbolize the resurrection of dead ancestors. Music and dance are also used for healing the sick/diseases.

Groups like the ton (an age-based association for men and women) shape community life. It includes female and male divisions and is organized by age groups (flan-bolow). One enters the ton after circumcision and leaves it at the age of about thirty-five. There’s also theater and puppet shows, such as koteba theater (Bamana theater form from Mali that uses satire, dance, and song to address social issues and civic injustices) and puppet shows (sogo bo), often featuring masks like sogow, Ngon, and Ntomo.

Bamana society was traditionally divided into three main groups: nobles (horon), slaves (jon), and artists(nyamakala), which included blacksmiths, potters, tanners, and griots (praise singers). Most Bamana are farmers, which could explain why NYU linked the headrest to their culture, since headrests were used by those involved with livestock and agriculture.

However, Bamana people were also artisans who created important ritual objects such as masks, sculptures, and performances, which all play a key role in ceremonies/spiritual life. Furthermore, each item is produced by different caste groups, for instance, masks and sculptures are done by male blacksmiths while women usually make pottery.

Historically, the Bamana migrated from Toron (present-day Côte d’Ivoire) to the Niger River region, building a powerful empire centered in Ségou in the 1700s under leaders like Kaladian and Mamary Coulibaly(grandson of Kaladian), before later being overthrown by Ngolo Diarra (a former slave), then by El Hadji Umar Tall’s Tukolor army in 1861. Then the French took over in 1890, up until Mali’s independence in 1960.

As mentioned briefly, although many Bamana later adopted Islam, it’s deeply embedded in present-day Bamana culture. In Bamana: the art of existence in Mali, it states that rather than being purely traditional, Bamana religion blends older beliefs with Islamic ideas. For example, sacred knowledge (daliluw) is sometimes linked to Islamic practices like pilgrimage, and some boliw (power objects) are said to have come from Mecca through legends tied to Mansa Musa, who was the ninth Mansa (king) of the Mali Empire in the 14th century.