Carla Laguerre

Hand Cross (mäsqäl) 19th or 20th century

Research Dates: January-May 2025
Website: https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/objects/116299

Amhara. Hand Cross (mäsqäl), 19th or 20th century. Silver, 12 3/4 x 5 1/2 in. (32.3 x 14.0 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Franklin H. Williams, 88.192.3. (Photo: Brooklyn Museum)

Hand Cross mäsqäl (መስቀል) or mäsqäl qǝddase (መስቀል ቅዱሴ)

Amhara ዐምሐራ (ʾÄməḥära)

Abyssinia ሀበሻ፣ አበሻ (Modern-day Ethiopia)

19th or 20th century

Silver or Silver alloy

12 3/4 x 5 1/2 in. (32.3 x 14.0 cm)

Brooklyn Museum

Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Franklin H. Williams, 88.192.3.

(Photo: Brooklyn Museum)

The Geography of Amhara

The Amhara region is divided into two main topographical zones: highlands and lowlands. The highlands, which dominate the northern and eastern areas, lie above 1,500 meters and feature mountain chains and plateaus. The lowlands, found mainly in the western and eastern parts, range between 500 and 1,500 meters in elevation. The region’s climate corresponds to elevation: areas above 2,300 meters fall into the cool Dega zone, 1,500–2,300 meters into the temperate Woina Dega zone, and below 1,500 meters into the hot Kolla zone.

The Amhara: Faith, Language, and Power in Ethiopian History

Emperor Haile Selassie I (center) Habte Giyorgis Dinagde Hailu Tecla Haimanot and member of the royal court

The Amhara (ዐምሐራ) are one of Ethiopia’s two largest ethnolinguistic groups, alongside the Oromo, constituting over one-fourth of the country’s population. Originating from the central highlands, the Amhara have played a defining role in shaping Ethiopia’s religious, political, and cultural landscape.

The term Amhara refers not only to an ethnic group but also to a broader cultural and political identity. It includes those who speak Amharic, the official working language of Ethiopia, and who identify with a vision of a unified, centralized Ethiopian state. Amharic, a Semitic language related to Geʿez (ግዕዝ) (the liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church), is a cornerstone of this identity. Closely tied to Orthodox Christianity, the Amhara have long been associated with the Church’s miaphysite doctrine, which dates back to the Aksumite Empire in the 4th–5th century CE.

Historically, the Amhara have been instrumental in the expansion and governance of the Ethiopian state. The Kebra Nagast, a foundational religious and royal text, provided theological legitimacy to ruling elites and justified territorial expansion beyond the Amhara-Tigrean highland core. This expansion often led to the incorporation of diverse ethnic groups into the empire, many of whom adopted Christianity through processes driven more by state-building than spiritual appeal.

As described by scholar Alex de Waal, the Amhara identity encompasses multiple layers:

Highland peasants
- of the northern regions, who maintain strong Orthodox Christian traditions, unique land tenure systems, and agrarian lifestyles.
The Neftenya settlers
- who moved into the southern regions as part of imperial expansion and became landowners, soldiers, and administrators.
Urban and bureaucratic elites
- many of whom assimilated into Amhara identity through the adoption of Amharic, Orthodox Christianity, and imperial cultural norms.

These latter groups formed the backbone of the imperial military and bureaucracy, creating a powerful link between language, religion, and governance. As a result, “becoming Amhara” was historically less about ethnic origin and more about integration into a cultural and political order aligned with the ideals of imperial Ethiopia.

Reviving the Faith: The Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the 19th Century

The 19th century, Abyssinia ሀበሻ፣ አበሻ(modern-day Ethiopia) was a pivotal era for the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Amid political upheaval and decentralization, the Church remained a central pillar of Ethiopian identity, rooted in centuries of tradition and the enduring legacy of the Solomonic dynasty. This legacy, grounded in the Kebra Nagast, affirmed the divine lineage of Ethiopia’s emperors and bound the monarchy to Christian faith and practice.

As internal divisions and doctrinal disputes resurfaced, the Church entered a period of renewal and reform. Emperor Yohannes IV and Prince Menelik of Shoa called the Church Council of Boru Meda in 1878 to address theological divisions and restore harmony within the faith. Though no bishop was present, the council relied on a doctrinal letter from the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria, reaffirming Orthodox teachings on the nature of Christ and uniting the clergy under a shared belief.

Missionary activity became central to the Church’s mission. Wollo, once a stronghold of Orthodox Christianity, had largely converted to Islam in the 16th century under pressure from invading forces. In the 19th century, Yohannes and Menelik led efforts to restore Christianity in the region. They sponsored the baptisms of Muslim leaders, inspiring widespread conversions and reaffirming the Church’s presence.

Meanwhile, Menelik II expanded missionary efforts to southern, western, and eastern Ethiopia, regions that had become disconnected from the Christian core during earlier conflicts. As these territories were reintegrated into the empire, the ruins of ancient churches and religious artifacts revealed their Christian past. Menelik saw this as a mandate for religious restoration. Numerous churches were built, and evangelization efforts intensified. In many cases, isolated Christian communities, long separated from the Church and deprived of clergy and sacraments, rejoiced at the arrival of fellow believers who reestablished their ties to the Orthodox faith.

Hand Cross :“mäsqäl” (መስቀል) or “mäsqäl qǝddase” (መስቀል ቅዳሴ) or “yäǝṭan” (የዕጣን)

African Patee Hand Blessing Cross, Coptic Orthodox Christian, 19th century, in lost wax cast nickel, 11-1/2″ x 4-3/8″.

For over 1,600 years, the cross has been a central symbol in Ethiopian religious and cultural life and serves as both a devotional and protective symbol. Some of the earliest examples, simple, blue-painted wooden crosses believed to ward off evil, date back to the 5th century. Metal crosses, made of silver, bronze, or brass, are more elaborate and often reflect greater craftsmanship and value.

A distinct category of hand-held crosses, used by priests in liturgical contexts, emerged prominently in the 19th century. These crosses were often crafted from melted silver coins, such as the Maria Theresa thaler. A defining feature of these sacred objects is the rectangular motif on their lower arms, symbolizing the Ark of the Covenant. These crosses are more than religious symbols; they represent the identity and heritage of the Ethiopian people, fostering a strong sense of cultural pride and unity.

Left: Silver Maria Theresa Thaler – Obverse (Restrike)

Right: Trade Coin Ethiopian Empire Maria Theresa Thaler

The Lost-Wax Tradition and Sacred Craft of Ethiopian Cross-Making

Ethiopian crosses are often crafted using the ancient lost-wax casting method, a technique passed down through generations. Artisans begin by sculpting a wax model of the cross, encasing it in clay or ceramic, and heating it until the wax melts and drains out, leaving a hollow mold into which molten metal is poured. Once the metal cools and solidifies, the mold is broken to reveal the cross, which is then polished and decorated with etching and engraving. In the 18th and 19th centuries, silver was often sourced from melted Maria Theresa thalers, widely circulated coins locally known as birr or talari, as well as from salt blocks known as amole tchew.

Anthropological research across Africa shows that metal production is often surrounded by ritual and taboo, reflecting the belief that transforming earth (ore) through fire is a sacred and potentially dangerous act. In many African societies, this process is carefully controlled, with metalworking roles restricted to hereditary specialists. Such traditions underscore the spiritual and social weight of working with fire and earth. While comparable evidence of long-standing hereditary metalworking guilds has not yet been confirmed in the Amhara region, this absence highlights the need for further archaeological research.

Today, Ethiopian crosses, steeped in religious symbolism and produced through sacred craftsmanship, remain powerful symbols of faith, identity, and cultural continuity.

Left: This series of drawings demonstrates the lost wax casting method. A wax model is made of a ring (a). The model is coated in clay or plaster (b) which may be fired or left to dry. A hole is drilled into the coated wax model (c) and the wax is melted out. Molten metal is poured into the mold (d). After the metal has cooled, the mold is broken and the sprue (the waste on a casting left by the hole through which the molten metal was poured) cut away (e). The cast object is finished, and rough patches are removed. The final piece is polished (f). After Ancient Jewellery by J. Ogden, University of California Press/British Museum, 1992, page 50.

Right: X-radiography and microscopic examination of our silver cross reveals that it was actually cast in three separate pieces: an openwork Greek cross at top, a solid rectangular handle, and a flat tabular section at the bottom that terminates in a triangular section of openwork design. The x-radiograph of the cross shows the distinct edges where the cross and tabular sections end. The handle is notched at either end so that the two pieces fit in the openings.

Symbolic Geometry and Sacred Presence: The Visual Language of Ethiopian Crosses

It is important to note that hand crosses with human figures are extremely rare. They are mostly found in wood and sometimes depict figures like Christ or Adam. The figure’s torso and legs often serve as the handle of the cross. One of the most defining features of Ethiopian crosses is their intricate, lace-like design, characterized by interwoven and knotted patterns. Though initially practical, reducing the amount of metal used, these motifs persist even in wooden, stone, and painted crosses, revealing their deeper symbolic significance. Rooted in late antique Mediterranean culture, such patterns historically conveyed protective power, often associated with sacred and magical functions. Their enduring presence in Ethiopian crosses reflects a belief in their capacity to mediate divine protection.

Ethiopian crosses may also incorporate narrative scenes or saintly figures, yet their primary emphasis remains abstract and symbolic, rather than purely representational. This abstraction allows the cross to transcend a single historical event, such as the Crucifixion, and instead evoke broader Christian themes: creation, salvation, and divine judgment. When saints such as Tekle Haymanot or Gabra Manfas Qeddus are depicted, they serve as intercessors and embodiments of Christian virtues, piety, sacrifice, and moral perseverance, bringing immediacy and Ethiopian identity to the universal symbol of the cross.

These visual choices reflect a theology of continuity, where the Passion of Christ and the self-sacrifice of saints are linked across time. In this way, Ethiopian crosses express not only the core beliefs of Christianity but also a lived, ongoing relationship between the divine and the faithful.

Highlighting the Progression of Hand Cross Designs Throughout the Late 18th Century to the 20th Century

Left: Hand Cross (mäsqäl qǝddase or yäǝṭan), 18th century, Ethiopia, Tigray region, Wood, H. 20 7/8 × W. 8 1/16 × D. 1/2 in. (53 × 20.5 × 1.3 cm), Wood-Sculpture, Purchase Mariana and Ray Herrmann and The Ruddock Foundation for the Arts Gifts, 2016, Object Number: 2016.315

Middle: Rare Ethiopian hand cross, Horn of Africa & Arabic Peninsula, Silver/nickel or nickel/copper alloy, H 300 mm, W 30 mm.

Right: Coptic Hand Crosses, Ethiopia, Mid 20th century, Silver-plated copper alloy, From left to right: 12 x 4.75 in. / 30 x 12 cm, 10 x 3.75 in. / 25 x 9.5 cm
12.25 x 5.25 in. / 31 x 13 cm

While hand crosses with figures are very rare, a few crosses have been made throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. These crosses have a progression of detail when it comes to the figures, yet, stylistically, do not drastically deviate from the form that is traditionally seen in hand crosses.

Deeper Look: Looking to Understand

Far Left: The Nativity

Middle Left: Daniel In The Lions’ Den

Middle: King Solomon (?)

Middle Right: The Resurrection

Far Right: Saint Abune Aregawi (?)

In the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and among the Amhara people, certain moments from the Bible and revered saints hold deep significance, not only for religious devotion but also as vital components of Ethiopia’s cultural and national identity.

Looking at the top segment of the artwork, one can see a depiction of the Nativity. Figures resembling Mary, Joseph, the Magi, baby Jesus, and angels are identifiable. This scene is directly connected to the Ethiopian celebration of Christmas, which takes place on January 7th in the Gregorian calendar, corresponding to the 29th of Tahsas in the Ethiopian calendar. In the weeks leading up to this holy day, the faithful observe a 43-day fast known as Tsome Nebiyat, or the Fast of the Prophets. Outside of Easter, Christmas is considered one of the most important religious holidays in the Ethiopian Orthodox tradition.

At the center of this segment, though the figure is not definitively identified, it may represent King Solomon. Among the Amhara, Ethiopia’s largest ethnic group, there is a strong belief in a direct lineage from the biblical King Solomon. Historically, Ethiopian emperors used this lineage to legitimize their rule, elevating Solomon’s importance in both religious and national narratives.

In the lower part of the panel, a figure is depicted alongside animals resembling lions and an angel, suggesting the story of Daniel in the Lions’ Den. While the precise reasoning behind its inclusion may be open to interpretation, the story of Daniel is often seen as a symbol of faith and perseverance in the face of oppression, an idea with powerful resonance in Ethiopia’s history.

When the piece is turned over, the top segment reveals a central figure believed to be Jesus, flanked by a figure resembling Mary Magdalene on the left, an unidentified woman on the right, and an unidentified man in the lower right. Based on the composition and the context of Jesus’ life, this scene is likely a depiction of the Resurrection. In Ethiopian Orthodoxy, the Resurrection (Fasika) holds even greater significance than the Nativity. Fasika is the most important Christian festival in the Orthodox calendar and is traditionally observed for a week longer than Western Easter celebrations.

The bottom segment portrays a figure entwined with a snake and an angel on the left. This is believed to represent Saint Abune Aregawi, also known as Za-Mika’el ‘Aragawi. He was one of the Nine Saints who fled persecution following the Council of Chalcedon and sought refuge in Axum, in northern Ethiopia. Together, Abune Aregawi and the other eight saints are credited with spreading Christianity and establishing the foundations of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

Unexpected Piece To An Unfinished Puzzle

This processional cross, which recently popped up on the internet, bears a striking resemblance to the hand cross shown above. The shared artistic style, particularly the distinct lattice work and the stylized figures, raises intriguing questions about the function and origin of these objects. Considering the complex religious climate of the time, marked by uncertainty and a deliberate national shift toward Christianity, one wonders: were these crosses used as instructional tools for newly converted believers? Or do they represent an emerging artistic style shaped by the cultural and spiritual upheaval of the era, one that eventually faded as the Church moved toward a more uniform aesthetic?

Bibliography

Anderson, Mark. “Fire and Forge: Glimpsing the Craft of an Ethiopian Blacksmith.” Akkadium College, 7 November 2015, https://learn.akkadium.com/fire-forge-glimpsing-craft-ethiopian-blacksmith/.

Ballance, Georgette. “Religious and Secular Art of Ethiopia.” African Arts, vol. 10, no. 3, 1977, pp. 66–67. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3335308.

Bid Square. “Large Ethiopian Brass Processional Cross.” https://www.bidsquare.com/online-auctions/artemis-gallery/large-ethiopian-brass-processional-cross-1298986.

Crummey, Donald. “Imperial Legitimacy and the Creation of Neo-Solomonic Ideology in 19th-Century Ethiopia (Légitimité Impériale et Création d’une Idéologie Néo-Salomonienne En Éthiopie Au XIXe Siècle).” Cahiers d’Études Africaines, vol. 28, no. 109, 1988, pp. 13–43. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4392133.

“Christmas in Ethiopia.” Brilliant Ethiopia, https://www.brilliant-ethiopia.com/christmas-in-ethiopia.

Collection Retro Zehnder. “JEWELRY FROM THE HORN OF AFRICA 02 / Ethiopian Christian art & crosses 02.06.” Ethnic Design, https://www.ethnicdesign.ch/categories/items/ed/Catalog/items/c/ethiopian-christian-art-crosses.html.

“Ethiopian Church History – 19th to Middle 20th Century.” Nine Saints Ethiopian Orthodox Monastery, https://ninesaintsethiopianorthodoxmonastery.org/docs/history/19th-century/.

“Ethiopian Crosses: The Beauty of Handmade.” Africanologie, https://africanologie.com.au/blogs/news/ethiopian-crosses-the-beauty-of-handmade?srsltid=AfmBOorYfXD6Ev2YsPOpLZhX-Ul3y5pd6GZZkuX7tGjQxerle3tdL0SM.

Ethiopia: Status of Amharas, 6 April 1993, http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/ins/ethiopia_amharas_93.html.

Evangelatou, Maria. “The Symbolic Language Of Ethiopian Crosses: Visualizing History, Identity and Salvation Through Form and Ritual.” 2013, https://huichawaii.org/assets/evangelatou_maria_ahs_2013.pdf.

Guide, Step, and Christina Griffith. “Expedition Magazine | The Lost Wax Casting Technique.” Penn Museum, https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-lost-wax-casting-technique/.

“Health and Wellness.” What’s Out Addis, 2 February 2022, https://www.whatsoutaddis.com/the-art-of-silversmithing/.

History·Art & Music. “AMHARA PEOPLE: ETHIOPIA`S MOST CULTURALLY DOMINANT AND POLITICALLY POWERFUL PEOPLE OF SEMITIC ANCESTRY.” The Habesha, 19 December 2012, https://thehabesha.com/the-amhara-cultures-and-traditions-in-ethiopia/.

“Invaluable.” https://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/ethiopian-cross-556-c-5a34eab92a.

Régi, Tamás. “Ethiopian Crosses.” Artefact of the Month, https://www.neprajz.hu/en/gyujtemenyek/artefact-of-the-month/2022_09_ethiopian_crosses.html#:~:text=From%20the%2019th%20century%20onward,the%20Ark%20of%20the%20Covennan.

Silverman, Raymond, and Neal Sobania. “Mining a Mother Lode: Early European Travel Literature and the History of Precious Metalworking in Highland Ethiopia.” History in Africa, vol. 31, 2004, pp. 335–55. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4128531.

The Metropolitan Museum Of Art. “Hand Cross (mäsqäl qǝddase or yäǝṭan).” The MET, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/701288.

Toman, Isaac. “Solomonic Descent in Ethiopian History.” World History Encyclopedia, 18 November 2021, https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1875/solomonic-descent-in-ethiopian-history/.

Yates, Brian J. “Acculturation in the Däga: Local Negotiations in Amhara/Oromo Relations.” International Journal of Ethiopian Studies, vol. 5, no. 2, 2010, pp. 91–113. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41757593.

Can be used for religious services or as a personal item for self-prayer

Amhara. Hand Cross (mäsqäl), 19th or 20th century. Silver, 12 3/4 x 5 1/2 in. (32.3 x 14.0 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Franklin H. Williams, 88.192.3. Creative Commons-BY (Photo: Brooklyn Museum,88.192.3_front_PS10.jpg)