Sunena V. Maju
Research Dates: January 24, 2025 - May 14, 2025
Website:
https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/objects/116306
Timeline of Ethiopian Orthodox Christian history till 19th century
Credit: Courtesy of author; research references in bibliography
HISTORY OF ETHIOPIAN CHRISTIANITY
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church traces its roots to the 4th century CE, when Christianity was declared the state religion of the Aksumite Empire under Emperor Ezana. Influenced by Frumentius, a Syrian Christian later ordained bishop by the Patriarch of Alexandria, Ethiopia’s Church maintained close ties to the Coptic Church of Egypt and followed a Miaphysite doctrine—a belief in the unified divine and human nature of Christ—, rejecting the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE. Syrian monks, known as the Nine Saints, further shaped Ethiopian monasticism, liturgy, and theology.
Despite the rise of Islam in the 7th century, which isolated Ethiopia from much of Christendom and led to the loss of Red Sea ports, the Christian faith endured in the highlands. By the 12th century, the Zagwe Dynasty commissioned monumental rock-hewn churches in Lalibela, symbolizing a “New Jerusalem.” In the 13th century, the Solomonic Dynasty restored the monarchy, claiming descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
In the 16th century, the Muslim general Ahmad al-Ghazi devastated the Christian kingdom, prompting Portuguese military aid. Jesuit missionaries followed but attempted to impose Catholicism, causing civil strife. Catholic influence was expelled by the 1630s, and Ethiopia reaffirmed its Orthodox faith.
Ethiopia is natural link not only between the Mediterranean basin and the Red Sea, but also with the Indian Ocean and beyond. 1. The Mediterranean basin; 2. The Red Sea basin; 3. The Indian Ocean basin; 4. Central African basin
Credits: Di Salvo, Mario, Churches of Ethiopia : the Monastery of Nārgā Śellāsē, 35
From the 17th to the 19th century, the Church preserved its traditions in isolation. It served as a cultural and political force, shaping national identity and supporting royal authority. Monasteries were central to education, social services, and heritage preservation, securing the Church’s foundational role in Ethiopian society up to the modern era.
Along the main ridge of the plateau, and leading off it, the most representative settlements in Ethiopian history developed: first, in the north, the fabulous Aksum kingdom, then in the south the mystical Lalibela, then mid-way along it Gondar, the Imperial capital; finally, at the far south, Addis Ababa, the ‘new flower’ of contemporary Ethiopia.
Credits: Di Salvo, Mario, Churches of Ethiopia: the Monastery of Nārgā Śellāsē, 35
Since the advent of Christianity, the cross has been in evidence everywhere, as a unifying and distinguishing element of a large portion of Ethiopian people. It is the first thing tattooed on his forehead, that a young Catechumen would receive. In effect, it served as a spiritual emblem of the entire community, homeland of ancestors, the fulcrum of an identity. There is a Latin saying, “His domus, haec patria est” (here is your home, here is your country).
Left: Depictions of saints and of the Virgin and Child; Right: This illumination depicts Saint Anthony the Hermit, also known as Abba Antonios, and Saint Macarius, two Egyptian Christian hermits who lived between the 3rd and 4th centuries.
Credit: Courtesy of Bibliothèque nationale de France
ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX CROSSES
Ethiopia stands apart from other Christian regions in the unparalleled prominence of the cross within both its religious and cultural life. The cross is not only a central symbol in worship but also deeply embedded in everyday social interactions and personal expressions of faith. Ethiopian crosses are renowned for their intricate designs and the wide variety of patterns used to adorn cross-shaped objects, ranging from ritual tools to personal adornments.
In Ethiopian tradition, the cross is regarded as a sacred framework that encompasses existence on both macrocosmic and microcosmic levels. It serves as a spiritual, cultural, and social nexus—through which individuals and communities articulate their identities, beliefs, and aspirations.
Scholarly literature has examined Ethiopian crosses from multiple perspectives: their possible connections to pre-Christian and early Christian visual cultures, their formal resemblance to Byzantine models, their cosmological symbolism, and even their structural parallels with liturgical music.
Triptych with Mary and Her Son, Archangels, Scenes from Life of Christ and Saints, early 16th century, tempera on wood, 26.7 x 20 x 2.65 cm, Ethiopia
Credit: Courtesy of The Walters Art Museum
It is widely believed that the use of the cross in Ethiopia was introduced by the Nine Saints, a group of Syrian missionaries who arrived in the 5th and 6th centuries. Ethiopian crosses exist in various forms, each with its own symbolic and stylistic significance. Some scholars suggest that the cross was already in use as an astronomical or spiritual symbol even before the rise of Christianity. In Egypt, for instance, it appeared as a variant of the ankh, a symbol of life—making it a natural complement to Christian theology following Emperor Constantine’s adoption of the cross in the 4th century.
Ethiopian crosses generally fall into three categories: neck crosses (worn as pendants), handheld crosses (used in blessings), and processional crosses, which are mounted on staffs and carried during religious ceremonies.
“አአትብ ገጺየ” (A’atib G’tsi-ye)
[“I cross my face and all of myself in the symbol of the Cross.”]
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo priest with qäqwami mäsqäl
Credit: Robert L. Hess Collection on Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, Courtesy of the Brooklyn College Archives and Special Collections
PROCESSIONAL CROSSES (qäqwami mäsqäl)
Among the three main types of Ethiopian crosses, processional crosses are typically the largest and most elaborately designed. Mounted on long poles, they are elevated above the heads of worshippers during religious services or processions. Historical examples suggest that early processional crosses were most commonly made from copper, bronze, and iron, while brass gained popularity in the 16th century and beyond. Surviving gold or silver examples are rare, and wooden processional crosses are even less common.
These crosses are generally cast in metal, often in multiple parts that are later assembled. They feature a hollow shaft at the base to allow insertion into a pole. Though widely referred to as “processional” crosses, their functions extend beyond processions. During the liturgy, for instance, a large staff-mounted cross is prominently displayed before the congregation. Because the liturgical texts are read in Geʽez—a classical liturgical language understood by few today—the cross serves as a visual and spiritual focal point, guiding the faithful in prayer and reflection. The raising of the cross at the end of the service traditionally signals the conclusion of the rite, prompting the congregation to disperse.
These crosses also appear in processions during church feasts, commemorative events, public celebrations, or times of collective crisis, when divine intercession is sought. A distinctive feature of Ethiopian processional crosses is the presence of hooks or loops at the base of the vertical arm, from which a long cloth is suspended. This cloth, according to traditional interpretation, represents the colobium or loincloth worn by Christ at the Crucifixion—reinforcing the deeply symbolic association of the cross with the body of Christ, a theme echoed in numerous Ethiopian religious texts.
Ethiopian priests with different kinds of qäqwami mäsqäl
Credit: Kasghar
The caretaker displays a large Ethiopian cross in the rock-hewn church of Saint George near Hawzen, Ethiopia.
Credit: Mark Fischer, via Flickr
Smaller versions of these staff-mounted crosses are sometimes affixed atop pastoral rods used by clergy. In these cases, the loops may be absent or replaced with ornamental motifs, as they are not intended to hold fabric. These rods signify the religious leader’s role as a follower of Christ and a spiritual shepherd, evoking the image of the Good Shepherd carrying the cross.
Pilgrims also carry staff-mounted crosses as visible emblems of their faith and purpose. Simpler in form than those used in formal liturgical settings, these crosses hold profound significance for their bearers. They serve not only as markers of religious identity but also as talismans believed to offer protection throughout the often arduous and spiritually demanding journeys undertaken in devotion.
Front page image of ‘The Ethiopian Tewahedo Church’ book; Ethiopian priest with qäqwami mäsqäl, Ethiopia
Credit: Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons
Ethiopian Orthodox Church Procession, 2024
Credit: Courtesy of CNN
88.192.13, Unknown Amhara artist, Processional Cross (qäqwami mäsqäl) 19th or 20th century
Credit: Courtesy of Brooklyn Museum
The object on screen is an Ethiopian Processional Cross (qäqwami mäsqäl) in Brooklyn Museum’s collection attributed to an unknown Amhara artist and dated to the 19th or 20th century. It was likely created using the traditional lost-wax casting method, a time-honored technique in Ethiopian metalwork that enables the creation of intricate, finely detailed designs—even when the overall form appears modest.
While the material is identified as a copper alloy, it is likely that bronze was also employed. Bronze, preferred over pure copper, offers greater resistance to corrosion, superior hardness after casting, and was readily available. These properties made it a practical and durable choice for liturgical objects intended for regular ritual use.
Different Types and Sub-Types of crosses
Credit: Di Salvo, Mario, Crosses of Ethiopia: The sign of faith: evolution and form
Studying Ethiopian processional crosses requires a systematic approach that isolates individual forms and analyzes their symbols and iconography. At the most basic level, four primary structural types can be identified:
Type A: Latin Cross
Type B: Cross with a smaller horizontal bar placed at the center of the vertical shaft
Type C: Greek Cross
Type D:Cross with a smaller horizontal bar positioned below the midpoint of the vertical shaft
These primary types can be further categorized based on stylistic variations:
Type 1: Crosses with arms that have parallel sides
Type 2: Patée Crosses (from Latin patēre, meaning “to open” or “to spread”)
Type 3: Crosses with naturalistic flourishes that emerge from the arms, resembling blooming flowers or budding leaves
Type 4: Crosses with looping or interlaced, ribbon-like arms
Type 5: Crosses that repeat simple forms, creating visual texture through spatial multiplication
Further classification considers whether the cross is inscribed within a geometric shape. These include Non-circumscribed crosses (e.g., with parallel-sided arms or Patée forms), Crosses inscribed within squares, Crosses inscribed within circles, and other similar forms.
Additionally, close attention must be paid to the proportions and structure of the cross—particularly the length of its arms and the construction of its staff—which can offer further insight into regional variations and liturgical functions.
Close-up details of Processional Cross (qäqwami mäsqäl) 19th or 20th century
Credit: Author, Courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum
Visual and Stylistic Analysis
This processional cross is best classified as a Greek cross (Type C) in the patée style (Type 2), where the arms broaden outward and culminate in cruciform or lozenge-shaped extensions. It is inscribed within a circle, a format associated with symbolic cosmology—emphasizing unity, eternity, and divine perfection. The rotational symmetry reflects the “rotating radial” motif that Di Salvo identifies as central to Ethiopian Christian aesthetics, especially in crosses emerging from Gondarine traditions.
Iconographic Elements and Symbolism
- Adorning elements along the cardinal and diagonal axes mimic floral outgrowths or geometric extensions—lozenge forms with smaller flourishes at their ends and crosslet forms at the extremities, consistent with mid-18th-century prototypes.
- This radial symmetry and outward repetition of forms resonates with Di Salvo’s “texture cross” (Type 5), where elements repeat rhythmically, invoking a spiritual infinitude.
- The encircling motif also echoes representations seen on church facades and reliquaries, particularly those in and around Lake Tana and Gondar, linking it to ecclesiastical art of the 18th century.
Craftsmanship and Technique
Crafted in copper alloy or bronze via lost-wax casting (cire perdue), this method allows for both fluidity in design and durable, long-lasting form. The surface finish and delicate internal perforations show precision, despite a deceptively heavy form.
Shaft and Lower Arms
The shaft structure—with its elongated cylindrical form, ringed mouldings, and semicircular lower arms—points to the 18th-century stylistic evolution. The curved arms attached to the shaft, seen increasingly after the 17th century, are not merely ornamental but are regional identifiers, often denoting workshop or lineage.
This shaft style suggests Gondar-region manufacture, supported by the twisted torus and formal structure, and ties this cross closely to the monastic traditions of the Lake Tana area. Its stylistic resemblance to the cross atop the Ura Kidane Mihret Monastery reinforces this provenance.
Processional Cross (qäqwami mäsqäl) 19th or 20th century
Credit: Courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum
WEAR AND TEAR, AND REPAIR
Ritual Use and Handling
- Processional crosses were actively used in liturgical ceremonies, particularly during processions and blessings, often held outdoors. The constant handling by clergy, acolytes, or attendants — lifting, shaking, and displaying the cross — naturally causes surface smoothing, minor abrasions, and stress at joints.
- If the cross was mounted on a staff, the base and connection points might show fatigue, stress fractures, or loosening, especially if carried over long distances.
Environmental Exposure
- Outdoor processions expose the object to sun, rain, dust, and humidity, especially in Ethiopia’s highland climate where temperature changes and seasonal rains can affect metals.
- Over time, oxidation of the copper alloy or bronze forms a patina, which is usually greenish or brown. Some of the darkened areas or subtle discolorations may result from this natural chemical reaction, rather than damage per se.
- If stored improperly or exposed to high humidity, corrosion spots may appear, especially in crevices or under raised decorative areas where moisture could collect.
Close-up details of Processional Cross (qäqwami mäsqäl), 19th or 20th century
Credit: Author, Courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum
Structural Vulnerabilities from Casting
- While lost-wax casting allows intricate detailing, it can sometimes create thin, delicate segments or internal cavities, especially if the mold was uneven or reused. These areas are more vulnerable to bending, cracking, or breakage during heavy use.
- Repeated handling could cause microfractures in thinner arms or decorative extensions, leading to small losses or deformation, especially at the tips of the flared arms or small crosslets.
Storage and Transfer
- If the cross was stored in monastic treasuries or passed through different custodians (especially in colonial or post-colonial transitions), damage during transport or periods of neglect could result in scratches, dents, or loss of smaller details.
Improper cleaning techniques—like abrasive polishing—may also have worn down intricate surface details over time.
THE TRANSFER OF PROCESSIONAL CROSS
This brings us to the topic of how a sacred object such a Processional cross make it way away from its home and place. Brooklyn Museum acquired it as a ‘Gift’ of Mr. and Mrs. Franklin H. Williams. Prior to 1981, provenance not yet documented; between 1961 and 1981, acquired by Franklin Hall Williams and Shirley Broyard Williams of New York, NY; 1988, gify of Franklin Hall Williams and Shirley Broyard Williams. According to my research, Franklin Hall Williams (October 22, 1917 – May 20, 1990) was an American lawyer and civil rights activist. Under President Johnson, Williams became the first black representative to the United Nations Economic and Social Council and later was appointed ambassador to Ghana., on a three-year tenure 1965-1968). As per Brooklyn Museum’s provenance information, and his tenure, Williams might have gotten the processional cross while he was in Africa.
Timeline of Ethiopian Orthodox Church History, 20th century
Credit: Courtesy of Author
Ethiopian processional crosses, like many sacred and historically significant objects, made their way into museums and private collections through a combination of looting, colonial expeditions, missionary exchanges, diplomatic gifts, and eventually, the art and antiquities market.
To talk about it more we need to catch up on history after the 19th century. Two major historic events that happened was Italian Occupation (1936-1941) and The Derg Regime (1974-1991).
During the Italian occupation, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church suffered persecution, and many of its leaders were exiled or killed. After the defeat of the Italians, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church experiences a revival, though its power is diminished by modernizing influences. The Derg government was said to be atheist and actively suppressed religious institutions, including the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Churches were nationalized, and religious leaders were persecuted.
A priest with an Ethiopian Processional Cross during a ceremony
Credit: Louis Montrose Photography
Looting and Military Campaigns
One of the most well-known instances is the 1868 British Expedition to Maqdala (Magdala):
- British forces looted vast treasures from the fortress of Emperor Tewodros II in Maqdala after a military campaign.
- Among the stolen items were religious manuscripts, crosses, crowns, and liturgical objects.
- These objects ended up in institutions like the British Museum, the V&A, and British royal collections, as well as in private hands.
Missionary and Church Networks
- European missionaries working in Ethiopia from the 19th century onward sometimes acquired processional crosses as gifts, purchases, or exchanges.
- These missionaries often donated such objects to European and American museums or sold them when they returned home.
“Ethiopia at the Crossroads” exhibit at the Walter Art Museum
Credit: Walter Art Museum
Antiquities Market and Collectors
- By the early to mid-20th century, Ethiopian crosses, especially the intricately wrought brass, bronze, or iron processional crosses, began to appear on the art market.
- Often, these were sold by local intermediaries, sometimes under economic pressure or due to lack of knowledge about their cultural significance.
- Western collectors prized these for their aesthetic value and perceived “exoticism.”
Diplomatic Gifts and Exchanges
- Some crosses entered museum collections through formal diplomatic gifts from Ethiopian rulers or church officials, especially during periods of modernization or international engagement (e.g., during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie).
Illicit Trade and Smuggling
- There is also evidence that, particularly in the late 20th century, some Ethiopian artifacts, including crosses, were smuggled out illegally, especially during times of political upheaval such as the Ethiopian Revolution in 1974 and the following Derg regime.
“O Cross, reconciliation of the cosmos, outline of the terrestrial expanse, height of the sky, profundity of the earth, bond of creation, extent of all that is visible: the breadth, depth of the universe.”
– St Andrew of Crete
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Al Jazeera. “After more than a century, Ethiopian stolen artefacts return home.” Al Jazeera, November 24, 2021. https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2021/11/24/photos-after-a-century-and-a-half-ethiopian-artefacts-return-home.
Di Salvo, Mario, Crosses of Ethiopia: The Sign of Faith: Evolution and Form. Milan: Skira, 2006.
Cleveland Museum of Art. “Processional Cross.” Cleveland Museum of Art. Accessed May 3, 2025. https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1926.243.
Di Salvo, Mario. Churches of Ethiopia: The Monastery of Nārgā Śellāsē. Milan: Skira, 2017.
Evangelatou, Maria. “The Symbolic Language of the Ethiopian Cross.” Hawaii University International Conferences Arts, Humanities & Social Sciences Conference, January 2013.
Peabody Museum of Salem. Ethiopia: The Christian Art of an African Nation: The Langmuir Collection. Salem, MA: Peabody Museum of Salem, 1974. https://ia801804.us.archive.org/14/items/ethiopiachristia00peab/ethiopiachristia00peab.pdf.
Bowers Museum. “Resurrected Aloft: Processional Crosses of Ethiopia.” Bowers Museum Blog. Accessed May 9, 2025. https://www.bowers.org/index.php/collections-blog/resurrected-aloft-processional-crosses-of-ethiopia.
Benalfew, Yemisrach. “Looted Ethiopian Treasures Returned from Britain.” Third World Resurgence, Vol. 2 No. 2, 1999. https://twn.my/title/1955.htm?utm.
Timeless Ethiopia. “Ethiopian Crosses.” Timeless Ethiopia. Accessed May 2, 2025. https://timelessethiopia.com/discover/travel-tips/ethiopian-crosses.
TWL Ethiopia. “Maqdala and Its Loot: A Brief History.” TWL Ethiopia. Accessed May 5, 2025. https://twlethiopia.org/article/maqdala-and-its-loot-a-brief-history/.
Cascone, Sarah. “Artifacts From the Battle of Maqdala Have Returned to Ethiopia in ‘the Most Significant Heritage Restitution’ in the Country’s History.” Artnet News, September 10, 2021. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/ethiopian-artifact-restitution-2007704.